Diplomatic Training around the World

INTRODUCTION

There is much literature about diplomacy and foreign policy, yet so little—in global and comparative terms—about the way diplomats are recruited, taught and trained during their careers. This is even more surprising considering that diplomacy is, par excellence, the method employed by states to communicate and negotiate with each other, through professionals sharing a career, whose objectives and ethical and cultural values transcend frontiers.

This need to learn and exchange experiences brought together, in Santiago, in April 2003, the heads of several diplomatic institutions of the Americas, from Canada to Argentina. The agenda dealt, exclusively, with issues concerning diplomatic training.¹Academia Diplomática de Chile. Informe de la ‘Reunión de Directores de Academias Diplomáticas de las Américas’, 13–16 de abril de 2003, Santiago de Chile. Some months later, the Thirty-First Meeting of Directors and Deans of Diplomatic Academies and Institutes of International Relations was summoned in Dubrovnik by the Vienna Diplomatic Academy and Georgetown University. At that gathering, the Chilean experience was mentioned and the idea arose to carry out a global research on diplomatic training. At the time, and maybe because of the Santiago meeting, we were entrusted to undertake this study. We welcomed this challenge and, since no other background information existed on this issue, we made up a questionnaire hoping that with the help of our fellow colleagues, a database could be developed.

The questionnaire covered:

Admission

• Average number of applicants per year
• Average number of vacancies per year
• Age limit for admission
• Academic requirements for applicants
• Are there psychological/vocational tests?

Academic Year

• Hours of teaching time
• Are there courses for foreign students?

Mid-career Training

• Is there a mid-career training program?
• Is mid-career training required for promotion purposes?
• Are psychological tests required for promotion purposes?
• Is there an e-learning program?

Foreign Service

• Approximate number of Foreign Service Officials (FSO)
• Can applicants join the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) in an upper rank without studying at the Formative Diplomatic Institution of the MFA?
• Approximate percentage of Career Ambassadors?
• Average number of years to reach the Ambassador rank?
• Has a career diplomat ever been appointed as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vice Minister or Under Secretary?
• Percentage of women in the rank of Third Secretary or Attaché?
• Percentage of women in the rank of Ambassador (political appointees included)?
• Please include Syllabus, or on-the-job training programs of your MFA
• Are there career diplomats (active or retired) in the teaching staff of your Formative Institution?
• Percentage of the public/fiscal budget of your country earmarked for the Foreign Service (FS)

Relying on the information obtained, a preliminary version of the study was presented at the Thirty-Second Conference held in Vienna in 2004 and then at the Thirty-Third Conference held in Lima in 2005.

Now that the data from over eighty countries—accounting for nearly 90% of the world population—has been analyzed, the results of the survey can be examined with more precision and depth. The 83 countries that participated in this enquiry are listed in Annexure I.

We thank each and every one of the Directors and Deans for the support and patience shown, for clarifying many doubts and making suggestions for the improvement of the initial questionnaire. We are especially grateful to Ambassador Ernst Sucharipa, then Director of the Vienna Diplomatic Academy, who prematurely passed away, and had encouraged us to engage in this study.

THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Broadly speaking, this survey is aimed at determining the ways in which a MFA recruits its diplomats; the requirements for taking part in the selection processes; the entry examinations and the syllabi and training systems.

However, it does not limit itself to these issues. We thought it was also essential to learn how diplomatic careers evolved once they are initiated; how the career opens to women; if the Foreign Service echelon is or is not abused by political appointments; which is the recognition granted to diplomats, enabling these professionals to culminate their careers as Ambassadors. Without this information, our study would not only be incomplete but—should the answers be unsatisfactory—it would be worth asking ourselves if the efforts to invest time and resources to build up a transient foreign service are justifiable.

This chapter does not consider all the topics covered by this survey; we had to choose among those themes we believed deserved more attention. Besides those mentioned above, we analyze the role of the MFA in foreign policy and diplomacy, and the cooperation among the diplomatic academies and training centers.²A complete analysis of this research should appear in book form during 2007

MFAS: SIZE DIFFERENCES

Could the results of this survey be distorted because of the huge differences in size that exist among MFAs?

According to the number of employees, MFAs may fall into three categories: mega, medium and small-sized MFAs. Professors Brian Hocking and David Spence,³Brian Hocking and David Spence,‘Towards a European Diplomatic System?’, Clingendael Discussion Papers in Diplomacy, Nº 98 (The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations, ‘Clingendael’, 2005. rank the United States as the top mega MFA with a staff of 63,400. It is followed by France (23,700), the United Kingdom (15,900), Germany (11,500) and Japan (10,184). Take note that this data also includes officials that belong to other agencies and not only to the Foreign Service. If, however, only diplomats are taken into consideration, the ranking would be substantially different: USA would lead with 7769, followed by UK with 2308, Netherlands 1519, Germany 1460 and France with 1400.⁴Brian Hocking and David Spence, ‘Towards a European Diplomatic System?’, Clingendael Discussion Papers in Diplomacy, Nº 98 (The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations, ‘Clingendael’, 2005. Andrea Cascone, ‘Comparing Diplomatic Services: Structures, Networks and Resources of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of EU and G8 Member States’, Occasional Papers, DIPLO, 2000.

Another simple and precise way to estimate the size of MFAs is to count their resident Embassies accredited before third countries and international organizations. Following this procedure, the US is again in first place with 179 Embassies, followed by France with 160, Germany 154, UK with 149 and Russia with 148.⁵Andrea Cascone, idem.

However important these mega MFAs may be, they account for not more than 10% of the total. They are the very selected few that play in the ‘big leagues’. These differences regarding access to power, influence, international agendas, resources—both human and financial—and technology should be borne in mind when exploring the eventual courses of action and objectives that smaller MFAs and their academies or training centers are able or willing to cope with.

In the vast majority of the cases, the total size is made up of 1500 officials or less, whereas a significant 43% has not more than 500. Barbados, the smallest in this study, has only 50.

Irrespective of size and availability of funds, recruitment, teaching and training of the diplomatic staff in the mega MFAs do not substantially vary from those applied in medium or small Foreign Ministries. What really varies is that those recruits from MFAs with more resources can afford the luxury to choose right from the beginning their specializations including political, economic, consular, business, immigration or administrative careers. In other smaller MFAs, by contrast, future diplomats are offered general training courses, whereby they must be prepared to take over any and every function, even administrative tasks.

Career training is certainly continuous and offers a myriad choices in mega MFAs, while in those that are smaller, the training must be occasional and restricted to matters of vital interest in their foreign policy. In some cases, e-learning, video libraries and CD-based training are common tools, while in others, only a remote goal.

RECRUITMENT

Not so long ago belonging to the aristocracy or being wealthy would frequently give a significant advantage to those wishing to join the Foreign Service. Having a private income was a standard requirement, and a letter of recommendation signed by a well-known person could serve as the magic key to enter into the career.

Today the requisites have changed: a university degree is a must, as is fluency in foreign languages, plus having a good psychological or diplomatic profile. Generally the recruitment process is announced with great publicity and with sufficient anticipation, giving clear rules that guarantee transparency and fair play to all candidates. All MFAs, given life cycles, need to renew their staffs. Normally, their Human Resources divisions determine the number of professionals to be hired each year. Once that number is established, a public selection process is called through the mass media and Internet. University centers are also visited, looking for graduates willing to pursue a diplomatic career.

It doesn’t matter much whether the MFAs entrust their Human Resources divisions, Academies, Institutes or Training Centers with the calling, selection process and appointment of the candidates. What is really important is that the process is widely advertised and transparent, and that only the best candidates are accepted. The requirements for admission are very similar: except in the United States all MFAs demand a university degree for the entry examinations. In most selection processes, besides a university degree, candidates should also speak other languages. Once taken in the Foreign Service, the MFAs devote a large part of the syllabus to improve the language proficiency of their new recruits.

As for age, several situations exist: half the MFAs do not mention age, while 42% put an age limit of 35. The US allows a maximum of 59, the highest of all. A very special case is that of Indonesia, which sets a maximum of 28 for those candidates holding a bachelor’s degree; 32 for those with a master’s degree and 35 for those with a doctoral degree.

Despite the high academic standards required, in all countries there is a high demand for a diplomatic career, a profession that is universally recognized as challenging, attractive and full of opportunities. This explains the high ratio between applications and vacancies around the world: in the United States, there is one vacancy for every 300 candidates; in Brazil, 1 for every 125 candidates; in the UK, 1 vacancy for 120 candidates; in Australia and Thailand, one vacancy for 100 candidates.

As an example, consider the selection process in Finland, which, with its 500 diplomats, ranks as a small-sized MFA. In 2004, 826 candidates, all holding a university degree, applied to fill 30 vacancies. There was no age limit. They were examined by an admission and educational committee selected by the MFA along with representatives of universities, trade unions and chambers of commerce. Candidates followed a 4-stage process:

1. Submission of requested documentation (university grades, CV, introduction letters and an essay on the reasons underlying their desire to be admitted);
2. approval of a current affairs and general knowledge exam;
3. the highest 98 scores would be submitted to psychological tests and interviews, where a candidate’s knowledge was not relevant. The top 42 scores followed on to the 4th stage, consisting of a final interview and language examinations. The top 30 were selected for training, which would last about two years and which we will discuss later on.

Consider the screening process in the United States for the selection of Foreign Service Officers. Each candidate has to choose one of five career paths: management, consular, economic, political and public diplomacy affairs. This decision is almost final, as changing to another path is a long and cumbersome process. There is a wide campaign on the media publicizing the State Department’s examination process. The criteria for applications are: to be a citizen of the United States, from 20 to 59 years old. A college or university degree is not required. No language proficiency is asked for but a good command in foreign languages is a plus. The examining commission is formed by officials from the State Department. Every applicant has to pass a written exam and an oral assessment. The written exam lasts a whole day and consists, in its first phase, of different subjects: 50 multiple-choice questions, English expressions, behavioral and personality tests, and essay writing. From a total of about 20,000 to 30,000 applicants for some 300 to 400 vacancies, only about 20% to 25% pass the test. The second phase, the oral assessments, takes another day. There are both individual and collective assessments of the applicants, that take into account several elements: criteria-judgment; experience and motivation; oral and written communication; initiative and leadership skills; teamwork; cultural flexibility; composure; calm, impartiality and the ability to adequately face challenges, inter alia. Successful candidates need to undergo a security background investigation and a medical clearance. The selected applicants are listed in a register ‘Eligible Hires’, according to the scores obtained, where they remain for up to two years. If they are not selected for employment within such period, they are removed from the register and if they so choose they must begin the process again.⁶Report of the Meeting of Directors of Training Institution for Diplomats in the Asia Pacific Region. Santiago, Chile, 7–10 June 2004, page 11.

Sir Harold Nicolson in ‘Diplomacy’⁷Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy, Insitute for the Study of Diplomacy, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1988, Chapter V, ‘The Ideal Diplomatist’. listed the qualities of an ideal diplomat: truthfulness, accuracy, calmness, good temper, patience, modesty, and loyalty. It is also taken for granted that he shall be intelligent, knowledgeable, wise, prudent, warm, joyful, courageous and tactful. Command of foreign languages—critical for interacting with diplomats from other nations—is, obviously, a requirement.

But as Xiaohong Liu wisely remarks, Nicolson’s ‘ideal diplomatist’ is modelled on exclusively European, mainly British, and American experiences. When he discusses the changes in postwar international diplomacy with the rise of newly independent countries, Nicolson sees a dichotomized world: the west and the east. He sees the former relying in the old system of trust and truth, the latter playing a game of deception ascribed either to communist ideology or to ‘oriental mentality’… Then Liu adds: ‘to date the diplomatic practices and experiences of other traditions have yet to be fully introduced and integrated into the conventional wisdom of diplomatic studies’.⁸Xiaohong Liu, Chinese Ambassadors. The Rise of Diplomatic Professionals since 1949, University of Washington Press, 2001, page xii.

Surely some interesting research could be done in this area. Going back to Nicolson and the fifteen qualities he has listed—which certainly no human could attain in their entirety—only one is easier to verify: ‘knowledge’, generally acquired with education, attested by diplomas or certificates, which, as already seen, nearly all MFAs demand from candidates wishing to join their Foreign Services. However, how are the remaining 14 qualities—making up the ‘diplomatic profile’ regarded as crucial for a successful career—going to be measured?

A fundamental question arises: do we search for a professional, with outstanding academic credits but a weak diplomatic profile? Or a candidate with a good diplomatic profile but modest academic performance? Or should he/she have a balanced mixture of both ingredients? We already saw that knowledge is a ‘must’ and that 99% of MFAs demand a university degree, hopefully, with proficiency in one or more foreign languages.

The survey also highlights another fact: for 66% of MFAs, academic excellence is not enough. They also expect an adequate diplomatic profile. The possession of knowledge is clearly important, but having the diplomatic profile seems indispensable. This calls for reflection: if the diplomatic profile prevails over knowledge in some entry exams, it is due to the assumption that successful candidates should attain solid professional knowledge during their career, while the diplomatic profile, if it is not the one required at the average application age of 25, will hardly be modified at a later stage of their lives.

Results regarding the psychological tests, supported by regular follow-ups during the whole career, have been excellent, which explains why more MFAs are adding them as an important component in their screening process. It should also be noted that among the remaining 33% of the MFAs, some do not apply these exams because of cultural reasons or for fear of being accused of lack of transparency. This group of 33% favors knowledge in their recruitment. The fact that a candidate lacks an adequate diplomatic profile does not mean, of course, that he/she does not possess the necessary conditions to successfully perform in other professional activities.

Asking each MFA to provide a detailed report as to how the diplomatic profile test is administered would certainly have exhausted the patience of our colleagues. For this reason we decided to describe the manner in which the Chilean Diplomatic Academy administers this process since 2001, which is quite similar to many of those applied in other MFAs, as shown by the replies to our questionnaire.

In the Chilean case, a team of psychologists, independent from the MFA, but with ample experience in screening processes for the Judicial Academy, was hired. They met with high, medium and low-level FSO and even with some of their partners, in order to get a clear picture about the working conditions and family life of the diplomatic world. As a result of the interviews, an evaluation model with twenty aptitudes was established to measure several abilities, similar to those applicable in other countries in their entry examinations:

1. Vocation for the diplomatic career;
2. Intellectual level;
3. Communication and empathy;
4. Social dexterity;
5. Teamwork;
6. Self-evaluation;
7. Motivation for achievement;
8. Entrepreneurial capacity;
9. Effectiveness;
10. Social judgement;
11. Decision making;
12. Attitudes to change;
13. Evaluation;
14. Negotiation abilities;
15. Emotional intelligence;
16. Tolerance to stress;
17. Integration;
18. Tolerance to frustration;
19. Adaptation to other cultures;
20. Social awareness.

The psychological tests applied are:

• Rorschach Test
• Thematic Apperception Test, TAT
• Completion of Sentences Test
• Edwards Inventory, EPPS
• Individual psychological interview.

The time devoted to interviewing each candidate was three hours (tests and interview) and two hours to study each case and prepare the relevant report. To insure that all candidates are informed of the importance and specific weight of these tests, when the public announcements are made for the entry examinations to fill FSO vacancies, with some 200 candidates competing for 10 vacancies, it is clearly stipulated that ‘the psychological examination shall be fundamental for the selection of the 25 candidates reaching the final phase’ and that it ‘will consist of several tests and personal interviews to search for the profiles required for diplomatic duties’.

If despite obtaining high marks in knowledge tests a candidate is not selected, this could indicate a failure to fulfill the diplomatic profile requirements. In that case the candidate may request an interview with the Director of the Academy and the head psychologist for a confidential explanation of his or her evaluation. The Academy has neither intervention rights in this last instance nor does it keep records of psychological tests.

After having administered these tests within the Chilean MFA for five years, certain conclusions can be drawn:

• Unsuccessful candidates have raised no claims for a lack of transparency in the administration of tests;
• The members of the screening commission—chaired by the Director of the Academy—during the final interview of candidates have generally coincided with the opinions made by psychologists about the candidates. It must be noted that the commission interviews a candidate first, and only afterwards the head psychologist discloses the results of his evaluation.
• The senior officers and professors of the Academy have witnessed an improvement in the vocation and commitment of students ever since these tests began to be administered;
• MFAs’ Directors noted in their reports a greater vocation, team spirit, solidarity and initiative on the part of officers admitted upon compliance with the diplomatic profile requirements.
• Psychologists affirm that these tests have a certainty rate of 90%; however, according to results, this percentage has been overtly exceeded.

In brief, the Chilean experience has been very positive since the implementation of the diplomatic profile requirements in the selection process. Another question regarding psychological tests was included in the survey: whether it was also being applied to Foreign Service officers during their career, particularly when promoted to positions involving greater responsibilities. Responses indicated that they were administered only in 11% of the cases, generally when dealing with promotion from First Secretary to Counsellor—this we found disturbing. From our point of view it would be reasonable to expect that these tests should be given again when the diplomat begins to make decisions, lead working teams, and hold executive positions involving more responsibilities. In due time, let us hope that these percentages, so low today, will become the general rule, as this is being required for recruitment purposes.

THE ROLE OF THE MFA

We firmly believe that MFAs will continue to play a decisive role in the conduct of world affairs and that diplomacy is the most effective method to reach, recover and maintain a peaceful coexistence among nations. Anecdotes predicting the end of diplomacy shall have to wait until earthlings divest themselves of all their frailties. Perhaps then the conflicts of interest that have always accompanied humans may vanish, and we might be able to give diplomacy a well-deserved respite. But until that magic moment arrives, diplomacy shall continue to be the most reliable, civilized tool to prevent disputes or bring peace to an increasingly wider, interconnected community, eternally overwhelmed by tensions and perils. We make this ‘statement of principles’ since some specialists refer to the decline of the MFAs.⁹Among others, see Shaun Riordan, ‘The New Diplomacy’, Polity Press, UK, 2003. However, as shown by Brian Hocking¹⁰Brian Hocking, ‘Foreign Ministries: Change and Adaptation’, London, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1999. and also by this same author, together with David Spence¹¹Brian Hocking and David Spence, ‘Foreign Ministries of the European Union: Integrating Diplomats’, Palgrave Macmillan Ltd., 2002—and we absolutely agree with them—neither the MFAs of Europe or of other regions share that vision.Brian Hocking, ‘Foreign Ministries: Change and Adaptation’, London, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1999. Brian Hocking and David Spence, ‘Foreign Ministries of the European Union: Integrating Diplomats’, Palgrave Macmillan Ltd., 2002.) Nor does this survey support that assertion. On the contrary, MFAs the world over maintain the key position as the valid interpreters of the mind and voice of their countries when dealing with other nations.

However, it is also utterly true that the past few decades have witnessed the appearance of other actors that claim their share in the international arena: Parliament, NGOs, other state agencies, academia, business, trade unions and, of course, the media. As a result, the MFAs today do not have the monopoly—if they ever did have it—in the involvement and management of world affairs. Nevertheless, as stated by Stephanie Smith Kinney:

The Internet, non-governmental organizations and Wall Street may now provide opinionated new players in an increasingly complex international arena, but they still do not and cannot speak for the nation states themselves. Nor can they speak for those entities which would like to become recognized as nation states. This function for the foreseeable future will continue to rest with the officially designated and recognized agents of each state or aspiring entity. Nor just anyone can or will be able to do the job; those who do it should be properly prepared.¹²Stephanie Smith Kinney, ‘The Culture of Diplomacy in 2015: What Kind of Service Will We Cultivate?’, Diplomacy in the Information Age, July 2000, Center for Information Strategy and Policy (CISP), available in www.cisp.org/imp july_2001/07_01kinney.htm

Faced with this reality, as asserted by Professor G.R. Berridge, ‘a diplomatic service that is well resourced and above all well staffed can give a State a significant increment of power and influence’.¹³G.R. Berridge, ‘Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger’, Studies in Diplomacy, gen. eds, G.R. Berridge, Maurice Keens-Soper and T.G. Otte, 2001, p. 3. Doubtlessly, this is one of the many reasons underlying a country’s efforts to provide its diplomats with the best training it can afford.

The role of a MFA as a formative institution can go, of course, much further than its fundamental task of training diplomats: the increase of power and influence has a very strong multiplying effect if the MFA also provides support to private or public establishments involved with third countries using, where necessary, to accomplish this assignment, regional centers managed by the MFA to reach the most isolated places inside its own territory. This type of action, employed by some medium and small countries, apart from improving the performance of those institutions, creates an influential home constituency for the MFA, an objective that is not easily achieved. In any case, this is an issue that deserves to be examined so as to consider the multiple functions a MFA can develop in the international field to fortify its foreign policy. Having said this, let us return to the making of a diplomat.

Acknowledgment of the importance of good diplomatic training goes back a long way. It was already demanded during the Renaissance, when the first permanent embassies were established, as stated by François de Callières (1645–1717):

The Great Duke of Tuscany, who was a Prince of great wisdom and penetration, was complaining one day to an ambassador of Venice, who passed through Florence on his way to Rome, that that Republic had sent him in the quality of resident, a man without conduct, and without judgment. Upon which the ambassador made answer to him: I am not at all surprised at it, for we have fools enough at Venice. To which the Great Duke replied: We have likewise our fools at Florence, but we do not send them abroad to take care of our affairs.¹⁴François de Callières, The Art of Diplomacy, H.M.A. Keens-Soper and Karl W. Schweizer, University Press of America, p. 171.

This study will deal, precisely, with the manner in which MFAs may prevent these embarrassments and confront this challenge to adequately train diplomats.

TEACHING FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMACY

What are diplomats taught and trained in their MFAs? Fundamentally, MFAs teach and train them on foreign policy and diplomacy.

Lord Strang defines the former as the discipline that embodies ‘the purposes, intentions or objectives pursued by its Government in the conduct of relations with the Governments of other States’.¹⁵Lord Strang, The Diplomatic Career, London, André Deutsch Ltd., 1962, p. 115. In a very graphic definition, Peter Marshall writes that ‘Foreign Policy is about what to do and diplomacy how to do it’.¹⁶Peter Marshall, Positive Diplomacy, London, Macmillan Press Ltd., 1997, p. 1.

Having defined foreign policy and diplomacy as above, a clear distinction should be evident regarding ‘international relations/affairs’, a subject we could term as basically concerned with the theoretical and historical aspects of the interaction among nations. Kishan S. Rana makes this point very clear when he writes: ‘We assume that the purpose of training is not only to impart knowledge of international affairs, but also to train personnel in diplomatic craft skills. This core fact limits the degree to which academic training is of practical use for diplomatic services. A typical course in a university, focused in international affairs just does not meet the needs for practical hands-on training for this profession.’¹⁷Kishan S. Rana, ‘Diplomatic Training Options’ (unpublished paper).

By their very nature, MFAs are the institutions basically responsible for formulating, planning and implementing the foreign policies of each country and, therefore, it is obvious that they should also be the best qualified to take over this task or, in exceptional cases—as with the United Kingdom—to discharge them through other learning centers. The same should be said regarding the teaching of diplomacy.

This does not exclude, of course, as John Dickie points out that ‘the formulation of foreign policy is usually the product of many sources outside as well as inside the Foreign Office, with inputs for Members of Parliament, on the spot staff of NGOs, academic experts, businessmen… foreign correspondents’.¹⁸John Dickie, The New Mandarins. How British Foreign Policy Works, London, I.B. Tauris, 2004, p. 6. But then, inputs to foreign policy are one thing, formulating foreign policy is another.

TRAINING: SYLLABUS VS TRAINING ON THE JOB

John Dickie, citing the memoirs of Sir Bernard Borrows, recalls that when Sir Bernard started career in the early 1930s there were no training courses: ‘you were assigned to a slightly older mentor who told you the mechanics of the business and then you gradually worked yourself in’.¹⁹John Dickie, ibid, p. 43. This learning by osmosis given by elders to newcomers was the type of schooling applied in most of the other MFAs until a more sophisticated way of training developed as from the middle of the twentieth century, with the appearance of Academies and Training Centers within the foreign services.

So nowadays, once a candidate has been selected, his next step shall be to start his studies at the Diplomatic Academy or Institute or have on-the-job training at his MFA, where surely an important part of his teaching staff will consists of active and retired diplomats. Professor Paul Meerts distinguishes between four main models of Training Centers: Diplomatic Academies, Schools of Foreign Service, Institutes of International Relations and International Training Organizations. In his booklet—an excellent example of substance and synthesis—Professor Meerts offers ‘some guidance to governments and/or institutions, wanting to create diplomatic training centers in order to enhance the knowledge and skills of their junior and mid-career diplomats’.²⁰P.W. Meerts, ‘A Short Guide to Diplomatic Training’, Netherlands Instituut voor Internationale Betrekkingen ‘Clingendael’, 2000, p. 6.

In our work, however, we will only concentrate on the formative institutions within MFA. The need to train diplomatic personnel is beyond dispute. The consensus is that diplomacy is not to be improvised and that this career demands permanent improvement, acquired and developed either at a Diplomatic Academy or Institute, a Training Centers or through training programs. Some countries, perhaps too small or new to have their own training centers, settle this problem by sending their officers abroad, thanks to cooperation agreements with other foreign institutions.

There is a wide network of agreements of this kind, under which professors, students, and publications are exchanged and several seminars, which offer short or long-term courses, are organized, to which foreign young diplomats are invited. The Institute of Diplomacy and Foreign Relations of Malaysia is one of the most active in this regard, as evidenced by the training programmes offered.²¹‘The Institute of Diplomacy and Foreign Relations’ (IDFR) Training Programs’, 2006.

In this field, we should also refer to DiploFoundation whose task is, as it states in its website, ‘to assist all countries, particularly those with limited human and financial resources, to participate meaningfully in international affairs through education and training programs, research and the development of information and communications technologies for diplomatic activities’.²²DiploFoundation: www.diplomacy.edu/

The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) has a Multilateral Diplomacy Program giving ‘in-country training and technical assistance, including tailor-made courses and workshops for government officials, training needs assessments and assistance in the development of diplomatic training institutes and curricula’.²³UNITAR: see www.unitar.org.

The most ancient Diplomatic Academy in the world is the ‘Pontificia Academia Eclesiástica’, established in 1701, restricted to priests entering the Foreign Service at the Vatican. The oldest secular Academy is the Vienna Academy, established in 1754. Especially since the 1940s, new Academies, Institutes and Training Centers were created, to the point that, today, practically every MFA has one, as proved by the responses to this survey.

In a Diplomatic Academy or Institute, the instruction is basically provided through courses that can last up to two years and require completion of an established syllabus. In 18% of cases, these studies can entitle the candidate to obtain a postgraduate degree. In the Training Centers, instruction consists of shorter courses, varying from one day up to several months, followed by long training periods at the MFA and in Missions abroad. But whatever their name, they are all after the same purpose: to recruit first-class Foreign Service officers and give them, throughout their whole career, the best possible homemade professional education and training.

A major similarity is also noted as regards syllabi and training systems, surely because the international agenda is shared by all, irrespective of regional and cultural differences. Few could have been as precise as Peter Marshall in this respect: ‘Whatever its size, whatever the extent of its international involvement and whatever the scale of its professional diplomatic activity, every country is at the end of the day faced with the same facts of international substance and process’.²⁴Peter Marshall, ibid, p. xv. These syllabi, coinciding in the basics, coexist with specific local, regional and worldwide interests that are considered in the particular design of the syllabus of each country, together with high-level conferences, seminars, round tables and visits to institutions or places of special interest. The most frequently offered courses are listed in Annexure II.

It is obvious that both the curricula and the training courses will vary since they must adapt to the ever-changing needs of the international agenda. The real differences that can be observed are rather connected with the availability of resources, both human and financial. So mega MFAs may offer more courses, languages or internships abroad than smaller MFAs, which sometimes are faced with serious restrictions even to fulfill their basic goals.

Let us go back to the Finnish case. Finland does not have a Diplomatic Academy, but applies the training system. As already seen, the top 30 candidates are selected for instruction consisting in international relations courses and mock negotiations—three months—language courses and several tests, followed by a 6 to 9-month internship at least in two MFA departments, and 4 to 6-month periods working at a mission abroad. Upon conclusion of this stage, which may last about two years, the candidate shall receive a letter from the MFA inviting him or her to join the Ministry.²⁵Nicolás Cimarra Etchenique, ibid.

The Foreign Ministry of Argentina, whose Foreign Service strength is over 900 diplomatic officers, has a Diplomatic Academy, which annually accepts some twenty-five students, all of them holding a university degree, from an average of some 125 candidates. They study theoretical and practical courses essential to the building up of the diplomatic knowledge in the globalization era during four terms, each consisting of twenty weeks. There are advanced language studies and other courses, such as introduction to diplomacy; diplomatic theory and practice; Public international law; foreign policy of Argentina; contemporary international policy; international relations theory; international negotiation; economic analysis elements; country economic analysis; export promotion; consular theory and practice; Argentinean culture; oratory; export promotion; public regulations and management; protocol, and diplomatic and consular practice.

It also holds special seminars on the main issues of the foreign policy of Argentina, focused on opportunities and challenges posed by the 21st century. In addition to the above, they receive the visits of national and foreign figures, professors and other personalities lecturing on issues within their field of study. Classes are given from Monday to Friday, full-time. Afternoons are devoted to English and Portuguese courses aimed at obtaining the respective international certificates. Candidates also train in other state agencies and take part in negotiation exercises and crisis settlement games.²⁶‘Reunión de Directores de Academias Diplomaticas de las Américas’, document presented by Argentina. After the two-year training cycle, candidates passing all the courses join the Permanent Active Foreign Service staff, at the lowest levels, i.e. Embassy Secretaries and Third-class Consuls.

The United Kingdom’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) uses on-the-job training; no prior diplomatic experience is required. Selection is based on the abilities, not the knowledge of the candidate, as the FCO will train an officer throughout his career. The first objective is to familiarize new diplomats with the FCO structure and working spirit. During the first two years they shall undergo intensive training, be assigned to an FCO department for professional or specialization courses, thematic courses and management courses. There are relatively short courses (3–5 weeks) for new entrants. Most of their training is done on-the-job, mixed with short courses, both in-house and external. Before going overseas, staff is given a period of full-time training for their next jobs. This process continues throughout an officer’s career, including the most senior. The list of some of the main in-house training courses offered by FCO include foreign-policy issues, consular courses, political work and negotiating courses, drafting and effective speaking and economics. Many of these courses are contracted to outside agents whose experts set up and conduct the programs, regularly reviewed by the Head of the Training Center of the FCO.²⁷John Dickie, ibid, p. 51.

Successful Japanese candidates must, during the first three months, follow courses at the MFA training institute on Japanese culture, conferences on the State system, economics and international law. During the next 21 months, they work as apprentices at an MFA department and then they are seconded abroad for two years, in order to consolidate the knowledge of a language of their choice. There they shall fully be devoted to learning a language at a university and sit for periodic examination at the Japanese embassy. This apprenticeship is also followed by other MFAs within the region.

CAREER PLANNING

Career training for Foreign Service officers is required in 81% of MFA and in 68.5% of the cases, it is indispensable for promotion. These figures show the relevance that MFA place on the professional improvement of its diplomats during their career. Those who fail to follow or pass these courses shall certainly have their prospects for advancement restricted.

In some countries training is also a requirement for Ambassadors but, unfortunately, it is hardly the general rule. This omission is even more distressing and can have major consequences if, as we shall see below, one takes into account that an important percentage of Ambassadors are political appointees. In this respect, there is an evident contradiction regarding the training demands made upon the young recruits and professional diplomats throughout their professional life, as compared to those requested to political appointees who will be in charge of a mission abroad, even though many of them have no professional qualifications. As Kishan S. Rana correctly states: ‘Objectively speaking, there are very few situations where a non-career Ambassador offers something unique for the advancement of national interest that a career official cannot deliver.’²⁸Kishan S. Rana, Bilateral Diplomacy, DiploHandbooks, 2002, p. 140.

Walter Astié-Burgos states that throughout a career in the Foreign Service several stages exist, each of which requires different abilities.²⁹Walter Astié-Burgos, ‘Perfil y formación del diplomático en el nuevo siglo’, Revista Mexicana de Política Exterior, junio 2000. At first, at the Secretary levels, academic training has little importance; the work done is predominantly operative. At this stage, practical experience is gained in handling a myriad of daily diplomatic affairs and issues. Upon promotion to Counsellor, Minister and, particularly, Ambassador, academic training turns critical, since when they reach these ranks, they acquire an influential position in the decision-making process, definition of strategies or recommendation of policies.

In mega MFA, career training shall certainly be continuous and offer hundreds of choices, while mini MFAs may offer only occasional courses in those areas that are of paramount importance to a small-sized Ministry.

The Centre for Education and Training (CET) of the Indonesian MFA is an excellent example of a mid-career Foreign Service four-month training course for Second and First Secretaries, which is a pre-requisite for promotion, with in-depth studies on Foreign Policy development and a sharpening of their diplomatic skills. There is also a Senior Foreign Service Officer course pre-requisite for those who will be promoted to Minister Counsellor, regarding an understanding of the development of problems related to diplomacy and Foreign Policy, decision making, problem solving and in making recommendations on regional and global issues and trends. At the end of each course, CET formulates a comprehensive individual report to be conveyed to the Minister of FA. This report is then stored in the central database of the DPA as part of the personal individual dossier.³⁰‘Meeting of Directors of Training Institutions for Diplomats in the Asia Pacific Region’, document presented by Indonesia.

The Mario Toscano Diplomatic Institute of Italy establishes for Counsellors a course including, inter-alia, the following subjects: an introductory course (1 day); foreign policy and Italian society (10 meetings); aspects of the Italian culture (3 days); European Union issues (2 days); conferences and round tables on current political, cultural and social issues (several days); strategic issues (1 day); seminar on communications (5 days); seminar on diplomacy, companies and institutions (3 days); international organizations (2 days); political and diplomatic security (6 days); psycho-social training on interaction and communications dynamics (2 days).³¹www.esteri.it/ita, see ‘Corso di Formazione Professionale Per Consiglieri di Legazione’

E-learning is used in 24% of MFAs, particularly for career training. Many others are expected to incorporate such courses in the near future.

WOMEN IN THE FOREIGN SERVICE

Only in the first decades of the twentieth century did women begin to be admitted—although reluctantly—into the Foreign Service. In the UK they were able to apply to the Diplomatic Service in 1943 but were required to resign on marriage until the regulations were changed in 1972. The first British woman Ambassador was appointed in 1962³²John Dickie, ibid, p. 5., and the first of the People’s Republic of China, in 1979.³³Xiaohong Liu, ibid, p. 142. Today, practically all diplomatic services around the world include women, although in the FS they are still a minority. This survey shows that in 13 countries women outnumber men among Third Secretaries, while in 38 of the 83 countries surveyed, they occupy more than 30% of these posts. Yet, at the level of Ambassadors, there exists a sizable gap in the numbers; in just 9 countries they occupy more than 20% of the ambassadorial posts (Sweden is the highest with 28%, though 54% of its diplomats are women). Please see Annexure III.

Surely, this difference in percentages between Third Secretaries and Ambassadors is explained by the fact that the recent incorporation of women is not yet reflected at the higher levels, something which should take place in a few years, as they advance in their careers. On the other hand this reduction could also be due in part to the rules that our society still imposes: marriage, maternity, housewife responsibilities or child education, which obliges them to choose at a certain stage between a successful career and their family life.

In any case, there is no doubt that their participation is on the rise, as can be seen in some MFAs which up to now did not allow them in, but are considering their admission. Uruguay is the perfect showcase of this positive trend: with only 1% of women Ambassadors, it has opened up the career in such a way that today an impressive 66% of their Third Secretaries are women.

COOPERATION AMONG TRAINING CENTERS

As stated at the beginning, one reason for this survey was the striking shortage of information about the institutions that, within MFAs, are responsible for recruiting and preparing their diplomatic staff.

Apart from the annual meeting called for by the Vienna Diplomatic Academy and Georgetown University, where Foreign Service training issues are not always discussed, the only other meetings at a regional level we knew of were the ones convened during the eighties and nineties by the Diplomatic Academy of Mexico with the participation of some Latin American and Caribbean countries. In these meetings nevertheless, recruitment, teaching and training matters were not considered.

In this sense, the 2003 and 2004 meetings in Santiago of the heads of Diplomatic Academies of the Americas and of the Asia Pacific Region, respectively, were a breakthrough with an agenda that included such topics as recruitment procedures, comparison of syllabi and teaching methods, the use of psychometric testing in selection processes, distance learning and cooperation.

Since then, there have been further meetings in Madrid and Costa Rica. In September 2006 it will be the turn of Uruguay to host the Ibero-American³⁴‘Ibero America’ includes the Latin American countries and also the two European
countries of the Iberian peninsula: Portugal and Spain. Congress System, where over twenty diplomatic training institutions within the Americas, Spain and Portugal will gather to analyse and discuss their concerns. These have all been very rich experiences regarding diplomatic training and, surely, it would be to the benefit of training institutions of other regions if they followed up with this example.

One of the many results of these encounters has been the creation of cooperative networks among Ibero-American Diplomatic Academies, Institutions and Schools, which have undertaken the pledge to advance in different areas, including the strengthening of the professional diplomatic career, to carry out annual training courses, increasing research in international issues and continue with the exchange of publications between diplomatic academies.³⁵‘Acta de la III Reunión de la Asociación de Academias, Institutos y Escuelas Diplomáticas Iberoamericanas’, Madrid, octubre, 2005.

Sadly, another result of this study shows that only 37% of MFAs offer free international training to young foreign diplomats from third countries on a permanent basis. The MFAs which accept foreign diplomats are principally those which have Diplomatic Academies or Institutes. One could conclude that inviting foreign diplomats to MFAs using on-the-job training represents a challenge that many have not yet been able to solve. These international courses, apart from the benefit of learning and acquiring experience in other regions—sometimes far away from the native country of the young diplomat—establish professional links among all the national and foreign students, creating lasting bonds throughout their career and a positive relationship among MFAs and their formative institutions.

Chile, among others, offers every year an International course for Young Foreign Diplomats from June through December. There are full scholarships for the least developed countries that include air fare, a monthly allowance, medical insurance and free tuition. Candidates must be put forward by their MFAs and speak Spanish. In 2006 young diplomats from Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Czech Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, Jamaica, Japan, Paraguay, Peru, People’s Republic of China, Russia, and Vietnam participated. Throughout the years, over 200 students from 50 countries of all continents have taken part in these courses.

Surely there are many other forms of cooperation between the MFA that could also be encouraged in other areas that are particularly sensitive for the diplomatic career, for instance in administrative matters, that could also be implemented.

RESPECT FOR THE CAREER

At this point we should ask ourselves whether all the energy and trouble spent in recruitment, teaching and training described above to build a specialized professional career is worth the effort. We have stated that any policy favoring training at a MFA, as adequately expressed by Professor Berridge in a quotation above, shall improve its management and accomplishments, and strengthen the international power of the concerned country.

In this sense, a process applied intelligently within an atmosphere of respect for the diplomatic career would be an investment in professional resources that should pay high dividends. If this is not the case and the career is abused by political appointments that damage the Foreign Service echelons, the eventual benefits that are sought through constant and sophisticated training would be wiped out by the demoralization that stems from these violations and, even worse, may cause tension within the MFA and affect its performance, an issue that has been mentioned in several studies.³⁶Among others see Brian Hocking, Foreign Ministries: Change and Adaptation, p. 218; John Dickie, ibid; and Enrico De Agostini, Diplomatico: Chi è Costui?: Miti e Realtà di una Professione che Cambia, Milano, Italy, FrancoAngeli, 2006.

This does not, in any way, mean turning our backs to measures that may fortify the MFAs, as is the case with the Foreign Services of the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Malaysia, and New Zealand, among many others, which admit lateral entries for specialists, without interfering with the Foreign Service echelons. When such incorporations are made in a transparent and non-discriminatory process, and not used as a feud to pay political favors, these measures should be most welcomed. In the same way, the system should not protect those professionals who, for several reasons (poor performance, ethical violations or other failures), duly verified, do not deserve to continue in the Foreign Service. To partly clarify this issue, questions were included which can lead to determine the existence or non-existence of a professional diplomatic career in the countries surveyed.

In order to ease these doubts, we put the three following questions:

1. Does the career always start at the lowest rank or is there a possibility of entering directly to mid and high positions in the echelon, taking unduly advantage of other Foreign Service Officers?
2. What percentage of Ambassadors are career diplomats as compared to those politically appointed?
3. Have there been career diplomats who have filled the positions of Minister, Vice-Minister or Under Secretary?

If the answers to these questions are positive one could infer that we are in the presence of a professional Foreign Service within a strong MFA.

On the first question, we observed that admission to the career by the lowest rank only is mandatory in 47% of cases. Regarding the other 53%, a clear distinction should previously be made between appointments based on professional or technical needs, called under very precise, fair and transparent rules, and those that are arbitrary and political, which can cause so much harm to the foreign service. ‘Lateral entry’ when carried forward through a public selection process to fill highly-specialized jobs, should not be criticized if due respect and equal opportunities for FSO are observed.

In any case, the survey showed that 19% of MFA recognized they applied a fair system of lateral entries, which should be added to the 47% of ‘entry to the lowest rank only’. We could assert then that 68% of MFA respect and support these rules, while a significant 32% do not meet these minimum requirements, and cannot pretend that they have a professional Foreign Service.

The percentage of career Ambassadors is also an indication of the existence of strong professional cadres. In 54% of the countries polled, the number of these Ambassadors surpassed 80%, which can be considered an acceptable level of professionalism. Central and South America, the Middle East, and Africa have the lowest percentages, although in these regions Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Uruguay, Egypt, and Israel all have more than 80% of their ambassadors coming from the FS. Please see Annexure IV for the full responses.

Nominating a political Ambassador should be the exception to the rule, restricted only to those with high qualifications for the post. Definitely, so as not to incur in the wise remarks expressed by the Great Duke of Tuscany, it should not be used as the playground of a spoils system for friends or for failed activities in other areas. No country, however powerful or small can afford such self-imposed limitations in the international arena, which generally carry with them loss of power and prestige.

The Foreign Affairs Committee Report of the British Parliament on the Foreign Office of 2002—as cited by John Dickie³⁷John Dickie, ibid, p. 157. —could not have put it more bluntly in emphasizing its strong opposition to the practice of making political appointments to ambassadorial posts: ‘We believe that political appointments are generally detrimental to the Diplomatic Service and can only be justified if the individual concerned is judged to be superior in merit to any FCO candidate’.

The percentage of career diplomats that have been appointed as Ministers, Vice Ministers or Under Secretaries can also be an indication of the power and recognition the career holds in a country and among its government. The responses indicate that career diplomats have attained such positions in 88% of the MFAs.³⁸Replies from countries that due to their political systems, cannot name FSOs in these positions, were not taken into account. However, for this influence to be real, these appointments should be frequent and not occasional. Unfortunately this point was not part of our survey.

CONCLUSIONS

MFAs are, by definition, the best suited institutions to train their personnel on foreign affairs and diplomacy. Moreover and despite differences in MFAs in size, the selection of recruits, the curricula, training, the career activities, prospects and expectations of diplomats are very similar in all these institutions and among their professionals.

Another special trait of this career is that although the work of a diplomat evolves around all layers of the society where he is accredited, there is also a strong interaction with his foreign colleagues—particularly those of the host country—with whom he basically shares a common agenda.

These similarities also apply to the ethical and behavioral principles that are generally respected by the ‘diplomatic community’, even in spite of the social or cultural differences that may exist between these professionals.

As Stephanie Smith Kinney writes:

Diplomatic services around the world—inc1uding our own—do more than represent and serve national interests. They also serve a larger international purpose, that of knitting the multi-state system together, through a web of relationships and common parlance, practices and values that facilitate relations and negotiations among contending nation-states. As such, diplomats and diplomacy help order a messy—often dangerous—international arena.³⁹Stephanie Smith Kinney, Center for Information Strategy and Policy (CISP), July 2001, available at www.cisp.org/imp/july2001/07_01kinney.htm.

This ‘diplomatic identity’ reinforces the need to cooperate in the diplomatic academic realm, even more so in this rapidly changing world scenario with a complex agenda that requires very well-trained diplomats. To be able to comply with this challenge, the formative institutions of a MFA must, among other requisites:

• be very demanding and transparent in the admission process;
• avoid duplicating courses that can be taught in universities or institutes of international relations developing, at the same time, very close ties between the MFA formative institutions and other public or private Academic Centers.
• have a modern and flexible curricula, including all aspects and uses regarding the global impact of information technology, inciting creativity and innovation;
• concentrate on the foreign policy issues of the international agenda that are important to one’s own country without losing sight of the world agenda;
• offer diplomatic training not only to the new recruits but also throughout the whole career of the FSO, with permanent follow-ups. Ad hoc courses should be given to political appointees, specially those named at the higher echelons, political Ambassadors included;
• open up to non-diplomatic staff of the MFA, to other civil servants and interact with the private and public sectors;
• organize bilateral and regional encounters with other Diplomatic institutions;
• develop free training courses for young foreign diplomats.
• solve problems that affect the morale of diplomats and cause desertion from the Foreign Service: among others, lack of respect for the career, slow pace and an absence of transparency of promotions and postings and inadequate salaries.

As already mentioned, diplomatic training and international cooperation among these formative institutes is a subject that has not been researched enough and should be encouraged further.

A recent excellent publication by young students of the Diplomatic Academy of Spain in 2005, cited above, examines case situations regarding recruitment and training in seven countries. This is the first response we know to the Dubrovnik challenge of 2003, which confirms the urgent need to study more profoundly in this area.⁴⁰‘Los procesos de selección y formación de funcionarios diplomáticos en los principales países del mundo’. Cuadernos 27 de la Escuela Diplomática de España, 2005. Several authors. The countries examined are Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Canada and the US.

Let us hope that many other such efforts will follow and that their results will be shared and discussed among our formative institutions. This would surely be the best way to raise the professional standards we are all striving for, as well as to reinforce the vital role that the MFAs and its diplomats must display in order to improve the prospects of a more peaceful world.