Early origins of AI in Islamic and Arab thinking traditions

Artificial intelligence (AI), though a modern innovation, has deep conceptual roots that trace back to ancient intellectual traditions, including the Islamic Golden Age, which spanned from the 8th to the 14th century. During this period, Islamic scholars made significant contributions to mathematics, probability, statistics, and other fields that underpin modern AI.

The Islamic Golden Age was characterised by synthesising knowledge from diverse cultures, including Greek, Persian, Indian, and Chinese sources. This amalgamation of ideas created a fertile environment for scientific inquiry and innovation. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, established by Caliph al-Ma’mun, became a centre for scholars to translate and expand upon existing knowledge (Van Sertima, 1992).

Islamic thinkers were an intellectual bridge between ancient thought, the European Renaissance, and the Enlightenment. Translating Islamic texts into Latin during the 12th and 13th centuries facilitated the transmission of knowledge to Europe, playing a crucial role in developing the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Islamic historiography).

Zero

Let us start with zero, a number that is ‘nothing’, yet has changed everything in our world. Number zero, the cornerstone of our digital and AI era, came to Europe and modernity from India via Arab mathematicians and traders. On this historical journey of zero, Islamic thinkers like Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī lifted mathematics to new heights. Additionally, translating Arabic mathematical texts into Latin further facilitated the adoption of number zero in Europe, integrating this concept into the Western mathematical framework and ultimately influencing the Renaissance and the scientific revolution.

Algorithm

Al-Khwārizmī laid quite a few foundational stones in AI building, including the concept of ‘algorithm’, which is named after him. He revolutionised mathematical thought through algebra and algorithms. His book, Al-Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala, introduced systematic methods for solving linear and quadratic equations, which were crucial for developing statistical methods, numeric data processing and, ultimately AI (O’Connor & Robertson).

Statistics

Statistics, the bedrock of science and AI, started taking shape in the Islamic golden age. ibn al-Haytham, often called the ‘world’s first true scientist,’ emphasised empirical observation and experimentation. his approach laid the groundwork for the scientific method, which relies on systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation to formulate and test hypotheses (natural sciences [edit]).

Al-Kindi, another prominent scholar, made significant contributions to cryptography and frequency analysis, which are foundational to statistical inference. His work, Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu’amma, is considered the first known description of frequency analysis, a method used to decipher encrypted messages by analysing the frequency of letters or symbols (statistics [edit]).

Probability

Probability, the foundation of neural networks and modern AI, featured prominently in the work of Islamic mathematicians. Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) engaged with probability in logic and epistemology. They examined the nature of certainty and uncertainty, often drawing on Aristotelian logic to discuss degrees of belief and the credibility of propositions (Black, 1990).

The works of scholars like Al-Razi and Ibn Sina in medicine demonstrate an early understanding of statistical methods and the use of probability in clinical practice (Miller, 1984).

Virtuality

Avicenna, one of the most influential Islamic philosophers, embarked on an early exploration of virtuality, a concept that resonates profoundly in today’s metaverse and robotics era. In his thought experiment known as the ‘flying man,’ Avicenna invites us to envision a person created in mid-air, devoid of any sensory experience. Despite this absence of sensory input, this ‘flying man’ would still possess self-awareness, suggesting that the soul (or mind) is distinct from the body (Adamson, 2018).

Avicenna’s thought experiment is pivotal for contemporary discussions on identity and the potential risk of human replacement by AI and robots. He challenged materialist views by asserting that self-awareness does not rely on sensory perception, proposing that our physical embodiment is not the main way of defining who we are as humans.

Avicenna identified human uniqueness in the argument that the essence of the soul is independent of the body. He built upon a long tradition of dualism, a philosophical tradition that separates the mind and body. Compared to Descartes, who made a sharper distinction in dualism, Avicenna’s approach is more nuanced, considering the soul’s role in self-awareness and its independence from sensory experience (Adamson, 2018).

Within this tradition, Islamic thinkers have debated whether mental states are a subclass of physical states or entirely distinct entities. They have causally explored how mental states can influence physical states and vice versa (Robinson, 2023).

Human agency

In the current AI debate, one of the key questions is the impact of AI on the human agency of thinking and making choices. In Islamic theology, probability intersects with discussions of divine will and human agency. The notion of “qadar” (divine decree) suggests that God ultimately determines all events, yet humans possess free will to choose. This theological framework requires a nuanced understanding of probability, viewing human actions as probable outcomes within the divine plan (Daiber, 1990).

Knowledge

Islam places a high value on pursuing knowledge (ilm), emphasising the use of intellect to enhance society. This aligns with the centrality of knowledge for the development of AI. A profound engagement with epistemology, the study of knowledge, characterises Islamic philosophy.

Islamic philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Al-Ghazali have contributed significantly to epistemological discussions. Al-Farabi, for example, emphasised the role of reason and intellect in acquiring knowledge, drawing from both Greek philosophy and Islamic teachings. He proposed a hierarchy of knowledge, with divine knowledge at the apex, accessible through intellectual and spiritual purification (Albertini, 2005).

Avicenna further developed these ideas, introducing the concept of “necessary knowledge,” which is self-evident and does not require empirical evidence. He distinguished between theoretical and practical knowledge, arguing that true knowledge must lead to virtuous action.

Islamic ethics encourages the responsible use of knowledge, advocating for AI applications that contribute positively to society without exploiting or manipulating individuals.

Lastly, Islamic scholars played a crucial role in preserving and expanding upon classical knowledge by translating Greek philosophical texts into Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age.

Ethics

Islamic ethics is deeply rooted in the Quran and the Hadith teachings, which emphasise values such as justice, compassion, and the pursuit of knowledge. These spiritual and practical principles guide Muslims in their daily lives and interactions with others.

Justice (adl) is a fundamental tenet in Islamic ethics, advocating for fairness and equity in all aspects of life. In the context of AI, this principle can guide the development and deployment of unbiased and equitable technologies.

Compassion (rahma) is another key value in Islamic ethics, emphasising empathy and kindness towards others. We can apply this principle to AI by designing technologies that enhance human well-being and do not cause harm.

Privacy

In Islamic ethics, privacy is closely linked to human dignity. Protecting privacy is seen as a means to preserve the dignity and honour of individuals. The principle of “satr,” referring to the covering or concealing of faults and private matters, reflects this. The ethical obligation to protect privacy is a personal and communal responsibility, ensuring that individuals can live without fear of undue intrusion.

Al-Fārābī, a prominent Islamic philosopher, developed political theories integrating Islamic principles with Platonic thought. His vision of an ideal political system includes a ruler who embodies philosophical wisdom and prophetic insight (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). In this context, privacy is essential for the ruler to maintain a just and harmonious society. The ruler must respect citizens’ privacy to ensure their happiness and perfection, as privacy allows individuals to develop their intellectual and moral capacities without fear of surveillance or coercion.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the rich Islamic and Arab thinking traditions provided profound historical contributions that have shaped modern science and technology, including AI. Islamic scholars created ideas still used today in AI research and applications. Examples include al-Khwārizmī, pioneered algorithm development, and other Islamic scholars studying probability and statistics. Islamic thinkers’ ethical frameworks and philosophical enquiries provide valuable perspectives on the responsible use of AI, emphasising justice, compassion, and the pursuit of knowledge. As we advance into the AI era, these traditions offer an important contribution to discussions about the future of AI that can serve humanity’s best interests, fostering innovation that respects human dignity and privacy.

References

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). Al-Fārābī. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-farabi/

Zuboff, S. (2018). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. PublicAffairs. Retrieved from https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/shoshana-zuboff/the-age-of-surveillance-capitalism/9781610395694/

Quran 49:12. Retrieved from https://quran.com/49/12

Sahih Bukhari, Book 73, Hadith 90. Retrieved from https://sunnah.com/bukhari/78/90

Albertini, T. (2005). Crisis and Certainty of Knowledge in Al-Ghazālī (1058–1111) and Descartes (1596–1650). Philosophy East and West, 55, 1–14. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-ghazali/

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). The Analysis of Knowledge. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/

Albertini, Tamara, 2005. “Crisis and Certainty of Knowledge in Al-Ghazālī (1058–1111) and Descartes (1596–1650),” Philosophy East and West, 55: 1–14.